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societal and scientific contexts, there is a need to draw upon certain mathematical knowledge and
understanding.
82. Since the goal of PISA is to assess mathematical literacy, an organisational structure for
mathematical content knowledge is proposed that is based on mathematical phenomena that
underlie broad classes of problems. Such an organisation for content is not new, as exemplified by
two well-known publications: On the Shoulders of Giants: New Approaches to Numeracy (Steen,
1990
[25]
) and Mathematics: The Science of Patterns (Devlin, 1994
[26]
).
83. The following content categories (previously used in 2012) are again used in PISA 2021 to
reflect both the mathematical phenomena that underlie
broad classes of problems, the general
structure of mathematics, and the major strands of typical school curricula. These four categories
characterise the range of mathematical content that is central to the discipline and illustrate the
broad areas of content used in the test items for PISA 2021 (which will include PISA-D items to
increase opportunities at the lower end of the performance spectrum):
change and relationships
space
and shape
quantity
uncertainty and data
84. With these four categories, the mathematical domain can be organised in a way that ensures a
spread of items across the domain and focuses on important mathematical phenomena, while at
the same time, avoiding too granular a classification that would prevent the analysis of rich and
challenging mathematical problems based on real situations.
85. While categorisation by content category is important for item development, selection and
reporting of the assessment results, it is important to note that some items could potentially be
classified in more than one content category.
86. National school mathematics curricula are typically organised around content strands (most
commonly: numbers, algebra, functions, geometry, and data handling) and
detailed topic lists help
to define clear expectations. These curricula are designed to equip students with knowledge and
skills that address these same underlying mathematical phenomena that organise the PISA
content. The outcome is that the range of content arising from organising it in the way that PISA
does is closely aligned with the content that is typically found in national mathematics curricula.
This framework lists a range of content topics appropriate for assessing the mathematical literacy
of 15-year-old
students, based on analyses of national standards from eleven countries.
87. The broad mathematical content categories and the more specific content topics appropriate
for 15-year-old students described in this section reflect the level and breadth of content that is
eligible for inclusion in the PISA 2021 assessment. Descriptions of each content category and the
relevance of each to reasoning and solving meaningful problems are provided, followed by more
specific definitions of the kinds of content that are appropriate for inclusion in an assessment of
mathematical literacy of 15-year-old students and out-of-school youth.
88. Four topics have been identified for special emphasis in the PISA 2021 assessment. These
topics are not new to the mathematics content categories. Instead, these are topics within the
existing content categories that deserve special emphasis. In the work of Mahajan et al. (“PISA
Mathematics 2021”, (2016
[27]
)) the four topics are presented not only as commonly encountered
situations in
adult life in general, but as the types of mathematics needed in the emerging new
areas of the economy such as high-tech manufacturing etc. The four are: growth phenomena;
geometric approximations; computer simulations; and conditional decision making. These topics
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should be approached in the test items in a way that is consistent with the experiences of 15-year-
olds. Each topic is discussed with the discussion of the corresponding content category as follows:
Growth phenomena (change and relationships)
Geometric approximation (space and shape)
Computer simulations (quantity)
Conditional decision making (uncertainty and data)
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