TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction
Language units
Word-building
Affixation
Compound words
Conversion
Substantivation
«Stone wall» combinations
Abbreviations
Secondary ways of word-building
Semantic changes
Specialisation
Generalisation
Metaphor and metonymy
Phraseology
Ways of forming phraseological units
Semantic classification of phraseological units
Structural classification of phraseological units
Syntactical classification of phraseological units
Borrowings
Classification of borrowings according to the borrowed aspect
Classification of borrowings according to the degree of assimilation
Classification of borrowings according to the language from which they were borrowed.
Romanic borrowings/ Latin, French, Italian, Spanish/.
Germanic borrowings /Scandinavian, German, Holland/ .
Russian borrowings.
Etymological doublets.
Semasiology.
Word-meaning.
Lexical meaning-notion.
Polysemy.
Homonyms.
Synonyms .
Antonyms .
Local varieties of English.
British and American English.
Archaisms.
Neologisms.
Lexicography.
LEXICOLOGY
The term «lexicology» is of Greek origin / from «lexis» - «word» and «logos» - «science»/ . Lexicology is the part
of linguistics which deals with the vocabulary and characteristic features of words and word-groups.
The term «vocabulary» is used to denote the system of words and word-groups that the language possesses.
The term «word» denotes the main lexical unit of a language resulting from the association
of a group of sounds
with a meaning. This unit is used in grammatical functions characteristic of it. It is the smallest unit of a language
which can stand alone as a complete utterance.
The term «word-group» denotes a group of words which exists in the language as a ready-made unit, has the unity
of meaning, the unity of syntactical function, e.g. the word-group «as loose as a goose» means «clumsy» and is used
in a sentence as a predicative / He is as loose as a goose/.
Lexicology can study the development of the vocabulary, the origin of words and word-groups, their semantic
relations and the development of their sound form and meaning. In this case it is called historical lexicology.
Another branch of lexicology is called descriptive and studies the vocabulary at a definite stage of its development.
LANGUAGE UNITS
The main unit of the lexical system of a language resulting from the association of a group of sounds with a meaning
is a word. This unit is used in grammatical functions characteristic of it. It is the smallest language unit which can
stand alone as a complete utterance.
A word, however, can be divided into smaller sense units - morphemes. The morpheme is the smallest meaningful
language unit. The morpheme consists
of a class of variants, allomorphs, which are either phonologically or
morphologically conditioned, e.g. please, pleasant, pleasure.
Morphemes are divided into two large groups: lexical morphemes and grammatical (functional) morphemes. Both
lexical and grammatical morphemes can be free and bound. Free lexical morphemes are roots of words which
express the lexical meaning of the word, they coincide with the stem of simple words. Free grammatical morphemes
are function words: articles, conjunctions and prepositions ( the, with, and).
Bound lexical morphemes are affixes: prefixes (dis-), suffixes (-ish) and also blocked (unique) root morphemes (e.g.
Fri-day, cran-berry). Bound grammatical morphemes are inflexions (endings), e.g. -s for the Plural of nouns, -ed for
the Past Indefinite of regular verbs, -ing for the Present Participle, -er for the Comparative degree of adjectives.
In the second half of the twentieth century the English wordbuilding system was enriched
by creating so called
splinters which scientists include in the affixation stock of the Modern English wordbuilding system. Splinters are
the result of clipping the end or the beginning of a word and producing a number of new words on the analogy with
the primary word-group. For example, there are many words formed with the help of the splinter mini- (apocopy
produced by clipping the word «miniature»), such as «miniplane», «minijet», «minicycle», «minicar», «miniradio»
and many others. All of these words denote obects of smaller than normal dimensions.
On the analogy with «mini-» there appeared the splinter «maxi»- (apocopy produced by clipping the word
«maximum»), such words as «maxi-series», «maxi-sculpture», «maxi-taxi» and many others appeared in the
language.
When European economic community was organized quite a number of neologisms with the splinter Euro-
(apocopy produced by clipping the word «European») were coined, such as: «Euratom» «Eurocard», «Euromarket»,
«Europlug», «Eurotunnel» and many others. These splinters are treated sometimes as prefixes in Modern English.
There are also splinters which are formed by means of apheresis, that is clipping the beginning of a word. The origin
of such splinters can be variable, e.g. the splinter «burger» appeared in English as the result of clipping the German
borrowing «Hamburger» where the morphological structure was the stem «Hamburg» and the suffix -er. However in
English the beginning of the word «Hamburger» was associated with the English word «ham», and the end of the
word «burger» got the meaning «a bun cut into two parts». On the analogy with the word «hamburger» quite a
number of new words were coined, such as: «baconburger», «beefburger», «cheeseburger», «fishburger» etc.
The splinter «cade» developed by clipping the beginning of the word «cavalcade» which is of Latin origin. In Latin
the verb with the meaning «to ride a horse» is «cabalicare» and by means of the inflexion
-ata the corresponding
Participle is formed. So the element «cade» is a combination of the final letter of the stem and the inflexion. The
splinter «cade» serves to form nouns with the meaning «connected with the procession of vehicles denoted by the
first component», e.g. «aircade» - «a group of airplanes accompanying the plane of a VIP» , «autocade» - «a group
of automobiles escorting the automobile of a VIP», «musicade» - «an orchestra participating in a procession».
In the seventieths of the twentieth century there was a political scandal in the hotel «Watergate» where the
Democratic Party of the USA had its pre-election headquarters. Republicans managed to install bugs there and when
they were discovered there was a scandal and the ruling American government had to resign. The name «Watergate»
acquired the meaning «a political scandal», «corruption». On the analogy with this word quite a number of other
words were formed by using the splinter «gate» (apheresis of the word «Watergate»), such as: «Irangate»,
»Westlandgate», »shuttlegate», »milliongate» etc. The splinter «gate» is added mainly to Proper names: names of
people with whom the scandal is connected or a geographical name denoting the place where the scandal occurred.
The splinter «mobile» was formed by clipping the beginning of the word «automobile» and is used to denote special
types of automobiles, such as: «artmobile», «bookmobile», «snowmobile», «tourmobile» etc.
The splinter «napper» was formed by clipping the beginning of the word «kidnapper» and is used to denote different
types of crimesters, such as : «busnapper», «babynapper», «dognapper» etc. From such nouns the corresponding
verbs are formed by means of backformation, e.g. «to busnap», «to babynap», «to dognap».
The splinter «omat» was formed by clipping the beginning of the word «automat» (a
cafe in which meals are
provided in slot-machines). The meaning «self-service» is used in such words as «laundromat», «cashomat» etc.
Another splinter «eteria» with the meaning «self-service» was formed by clipping the beginning of the word
«cafeteria». By means of the splinter «eteria» the following words were formed: «groceteria», «booketeria»,
«booteteria» and many others.
The splinter «quake» is used to form new words with the meaning of «shaking», «agitation». This splinter was
formed by clipping the beginning of the word «earthquake». Ther following words were formed with the help of this
splinter: «Marsquake», «Moonquake», «youthquake» etc.
The splinter «rama(ama)» is a clipping of the word «panorama» of Greek origin where «pan» means «all» and
«horama» means «view». In Modern English the meaning «view» was lost and the splinter «rama» is used in
advertisements to denote
objects of supreme quality, e.g. «autorama» means «exhibition-sale of expensive cars»,
«trouserama» means «sale of trousers of supreme quality» etc.
The splinter «scape» is a clipping of the word «landscape» and it is used to form words denoting different types of
landscapes, such as: «moonscape», «streetscape», «townscape», «seascape» etc.
Another case of splinters is «tel» which is the result of clipping the beginning of the word «hotel». It serves to form
words denoting different types of hotels, such as: «motel» (motor-car hotel), «boatel» (boat hotel), «floatel» (a hotel
on water, floating), «airtel» (airport hotel) etc.
The splinter «theque» is the result of clipping the beginning of the word «apotheque» of Greek origin which means
in Greek «a store house». In Russian words: «библиотека», «картотека», «фильмотека» the element «тека»
corresponding to the English «theque» preserves the meaning of storing something which is expressed by the first
component of the word. In English the splinter «theque» is used to denote a place for dancing, such as:
«discotheque», «jazzotheque».
The splinter «thon» is the result of clipping the beginning of the word «marathon». «Marathon» primarily was the
name of a battle-field in Greece, forty miles from Athens, where there was a battle
between the Greek and the
Persian. When the Greek won a victory a Greek runner was sent to Athens to tell people about the victory. Later on
the word «Marathon» was used to denote long-distance competitions in running. The splinter «thon(athon)» denotes
«something continuing for a long time», «competition in endurance» e.g. «dancathon», «telethon», «speakathon»,
«readathon», «walkathon», «moviethon», «swimathon», «talkathon», «swearthon» etc.
Splinters can be the result of clipping adjectives or substantivized adjectives. The splinter «aholic» (holic) was
formed by clipping the beginning of the word «alcoholic» of Arabian origin where «al» denoted «the», «koh’l» -
«powder for staining lids». The splinter «(a)holic» means «infatuated by the object expressed by the stem of the
word» , e.g. «bookaholic», «computerholic», «coffeeholic», «cheesaholic», «workaholic» and many others.
The splinter «genic» formed by clipping the beginning of the word «photogenic» denotes the notion «suitable for
something denoted by the stem», e.g. «allergenic», «cardiogenic», «mediagenic», «telegenic» etc.
As far as verbs are concerned it is not typical of them to be clipped that is why there is only one splinter to be used
for forming new verbs in this way. It is the splinter «cast» formed by clipping the beginning of the verb «broadcast».
This splinter was used to form the verbs «telecast» and «abroadcast».
Splinters can be called pseudomorphemes because they are neither roots nor affixes, they are more or less artificial.
In English there are words which consist of two splinters, e.g. «telethon», therefore it is more logical to call words
with splinters in their structure «