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1. Strategies

2. Communication Strategies

3. Avoidance Strategies

4. Code-switching

Лекция мазмұны: Strategies. We now turn to the second of our principal categories in this chapter, the level at which activity varies considerably within individuals as well as across individuals. Styles are general characteristics that differentiate one individual from another; strategies are those specific "attacks" that we make on a given problem. They are the moment-by-moment techniques that we employ to solve "problems" posed by second language input and output. The field of second language acquisition has distinguished between two types of strategy: learning strategies and communication strategies. The former relate to input—to processing, storage, and retrieval, that is, to taking in messages from others. The latter pertain to output, how we pro­ductively express meaning, how we deliver messages to others. We will examine both types of strategy here.

First, a brief historical note on the study of second language learners' strategies. As our knowledge of second language acquisition increased markedly during the 1970s, teachers and researchers came to realize that no single research finding and no single method of language teaching would usher in an era of universal success in teaching a second language. We saw that certain learners seemed to be successful regardless of methods or techniques of teaching. We began to see the importance of individual variation in language learning. Certain people appeared to be endowed with abilities to succeed; others lacked those abilities. This observation led Rubin (1975) and Stern (1975) to describe "good" language learners in terms of personal characteristics, styles, and strategies. Rubin (Rubin & Thompson 1982) later summarized fourteen such characteristics. Good language learners

1. 
   find their own way, taking charge of their learning;
   
2. 
   organize information about language;
   
3. 
   are creative, developing a "feel" for the language by experi­menting with its grammar and words;
   
4. 
   make their own opportunities for practice in using the language inside and outside the classroom;
   
5. 
   learn to live with uncertainty by not getting flustered and by continuing to talk or listen without understanding every word;
   
6. 
   use mnemonics and other memory strategies to recall what has been learned;
   
7. 
   make errors work for them and not against them;
   
8. 
   use linguistic knowledge, including knowledge of their first lan­guage, in learning a second language;
   
9. 
   use contextual cues to help them in comprehension;
   
10. 
    learn to make intelligent guesses;
    
11. 
    learn chunks of language as wholes and formalized routines to help them perform "beyond their competence";
    
12. 
    learn certain tricks that help to keep conversations going;
    
13. 
    learn certain production strategies to fill in gaps in their own competence;
    
14. 
    learn different styles of speech and writing and learn to vary their language according to the formality of the situation;
    

Of particular interest in both prongs of research and practice is the extent to which cross-cultural variables may facilitate or interfere with strategy use among learners. General conclusions from studies conducted in China, Japan, Israel, Egypt, and Russia, among others, promise more than a glimmer of hope that SBI and autonomous learning are viable avenues to success, cultural differences notwithstanding.

Table - 2.2 Learning strategies