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Developing reflective skepticism
Pupils need to form their own opinions and ideas with the aim of learning to arrive at the process 
in the light of evidence and for good reasons. Possible practice: 
There is a need for teacher in the process of discussions to encourage pupils to: 

offer reasons and evidence for their own claims 

counter these claims from others which they consider week 

question undersupported assumptions 

be open minded in considering a range of opinions and perspectives 

ask for clarification if they don’t understand 

respect the right of others to hold their own point of view, even if they disagree with that 
point of view 
Build pupils’ confidence 

Don’t discourage or inhibit your pupils from forming an opinion 

Never denigrate 

Always show interest 

If your pupils lack self-confidence, work on this 
The twentieth-century British philosopher Stephen Toulmin noticed that good, realistic 
arguments typically will consist of six parts. He used these terms to describe the items. 
Data
: The facts or evidence used to prove the argument 
Claim
: The statement being argued (a thesis) 
Warrants
: The general, hypothetical (and often implicit) logical statements that serve as bridges 
between the claim and the data. 
Qualifiers
: Statements that limit the strength of the argument or statements that propose the 
conditions under which the argument is true. 
Rebuttals
: Counter-arguments or statements indicating circumstances when the general 
argument does not hold true. 


69 
Backing
: Statements that serve to support the warrants (i.e., arguments that don't necessarily 
prove the main point being argued, but which do prove the warrants are true.) 
Toulmin's diagram of arguments typically looks something like this example: 



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