Working bibliography
Бархударов Л. С.
очерки по морфологии современного английского
языка / л. с. бархударов. М., 1975. с. 22– 47.
Иванова И. П.
теоретическая грамматика современного английского
языка / и. п. иванова, в. в. бурлакова, г. г. почепцов. М., 1981.
с. 4–14.
Blokh M. Y.
A Course in Theoretical English Grammar / M. Y. Blokh. Moscow,
2004. P. 18–37.
5. parts of speech
The words of language are divided into grammatically relevant
sets, or classes. Parts of speech are grammatical (or lexico-grammatical)
classes of words identified on the basis of the three criteria: the
meaning common to all the words of the given class, the form with
the morphological characteristics of a type of word, and the function
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in the sentence typical of all the words of this class (e. g. the English
noun has the categorical meaning of “thingness”, the changeable
forms of number and case, and the functions of the subject, object and
substantive predicative).
The notion of “parts of speech” goes back to the times of Ancient
Greece. Aristotle (384–322 B. C.) distinguished between nouns,
verbs and connectives. Traditional grammars of English, following
the approach which can be traced back to Latin, agreed that there
were eight parts of speech in English: the noun, pronoun, adjective,
verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction and interjection. Some books
additionally mentioned the article. A. I. Smirnitsky and B. A .Ilyish are
Russian scholars of English grammar notable, among other things, for
the development of the three-criteria characterization of the parts of
speech.
Modern classifications, proposed by different scholars, distinguish,
as a rule, between notional parts of speech, having a full nominative
value, and functional parts of speech characterized by a partial
nominative value. The complete lists of notional and functional words,
ever mentioned in those classifications, include the following items.
Notional words:
Functional words:
1) nouns;
1) prepositions;
2) adjectives;
2) conjunctions;
3) verbs;
3) articles;
4) adverbs;
4) particles;
5) pronouns;
5) postpositions.
6) numerals;
7) statives;
8) modal words;
9) interjections.
The main problem with the traditional classification is that some
grammatical phenomena given above have intermediary features in
this system. They make up a continuum, a transition zone, between the
polar entities. For example, there is a very specific group of quantifiers
in English (such words as
many
,
much
,
little
,
few
). They have features
of pronouns, numerals, and adjectives and are referred to as “hybrids”.
21
Statives can be considered as making up a separate part of speech
(according to B. A. Ilyish), or as a specific group within the class of
adjectives (according to M. Y. Blokh).
There are hardly any reasons for the identification of postpositions
as a separate functional class because these are prepositions and adverbs
in a specific lexical modifying function. The separate notional class
of modal words in this system is open to criticism because they are
adverbs by nature. The same refers to the functional class of particles.
The grammatical status of the English article is not clear enough;
in linguistic literature there are variants of its interpretation as a sort of
an auxiliary word or even a detached morpheme.
In general, the items of the traditional part-of-speech system
demonstrate different featuring. Sometimes one or even two of the three
criteria of their identification may fail. Let’s review the system in detail.
Noun is characterized by the categorical meaning of “thingness”,
or substance. It has the changeable forms of number and case. The
substantive functions in the sentence are those of the subject, object
and predicative.
Adjectives are words expressing properties of objects. There
are qualitative and relative adjectives. The forms of the degrees of
comparison are typical of qualitative adjectives. Adjectival functions in
the sentence are those of attribute and predicative.
Verb is characterized by the categorial meaning of process expressed
by both finite and non-finite forms. The verb has the changeable forms
of the 6 categories: person, number, tense, aspect, voice and mood. The
syntactic function of the finite verb is that of predicate. The non-finite
forms of the verb (Infinitive, Gerund, Participle I, Participle II) perform
all the other functions (subject, object, attribute, adverbial modifier,
predicative).
Adverbs have the categorical meaning of the secondary property,
i. e. the property of process or another property. They are characterized
by the forms of the degrees of comparison (for qualitative adverbs) and
the functions of various adverbial modifiers.
Pronouns point to the things and properties without naming them.
The categorial meaning of indication (deixis) is the only common feature
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that unites the heterogeneous groups of English personal, possessive,
demonstrative, interrogative, relative, conjunctive, indefinite, defining,
negative, reflexive, and reciprocal pronouns.
Numerals have the categorical meaning of number (cardinal and
ordinal). They are invariable in English and used in the attributive and
substantive functions.
Statives are words of the category of state, or qualifying a-words,
which express a passing state a person or thing happens to be in (e. g.
aware
,
alive
,
asleep
,
afraid
etc).
Modal words express the attitude of the speaker to the situation
reflected in the sentence and its parts. Here belong the words of
probability (
probably
,
perhaps
, etc), of qualitative evaluation
(
fortunately
,
unfortunately
,
luckily
, etc) and also of affirmation and
negation.
Interjection, occupying a detached position in the sentence, is
a signal of emotions.
Preposition expresses the dependencies and interdependencies of
substantive referents.
Conjunction expresses connections of phenomena.
Article is a determining unit of specific nature accompanying the
noun in communicative collocations. The article expresses the specific
limitation of the substantive function.
Particle unites the functional words of specifying and limiting
meaning (
even
,
just
,
only
, etc).
Each part of speech is further subdivided into groups and subgroups
in accord with various semantic, formal and functional features of
constituent words. Thus, nouns are subcategorized into proper and
common, animate and inanimate, countable and uncountable, concrete
and abstract, etc. Verbs are subcategorized into fully predicative and
partially predicative, transitive and intransitive, actional and statal,
terminative and durative, etc. Adjectives are subcategorized into
qualitative and relative, etc.
When taking some definitions of the parts of speech, one cannot
but see that they are difficult to work with. When linguists began to
look closely at English grammatical structure in the 1940s and 1950s,
23
they encountered so many problems of identification and definition that
the term “part of speech” soon fell out of favour, “word class” being
introduced instead. Of the various alternative systems of word classes
attempted by different scholars, the one proposed by Ch. C. Fries is of
a particular interest. Ch. C. Fries developed the syntactico-distributional
classification of words based on the study of their position in the sentence
and combinability. It was done by means of substitution tests.Tape-
recorded spontaneous conversations comprising about 250,000 word
entries provided the material. The words isolated from that corpus were
tested on the three typical sentence patterns (substitution test-frames)
with the marked main positions of notional words:
1 2 3 4
Frame A.
The concert was good
(
always
).
1 2 1 4
Frame B.
The clerk remembered the tax
(
suddenly
).
1 2 4
Frame C.
The team went there.
The notional words could fill in the marked positions of the frames
without affecting their general structural meanings (“thing and its
quality at a given time” for the first frame; “actor — action — thing
acted upon” for the second frame; “actor — action — direction of the
action” for the third frame).
As a result of successive substitution tests on the given frames,
4 positional classes of notional words were identified. They corresponded
to the traditional grammatical classes of nouns, verbs, adjectives, and
adverbs. The other words (154 units) were unable to fill in the marked
notional positions of the frames without destroying their structural
meanings. Ch. C. Fries distributed them into 15 groups of function
words representing the three main sets: 1) the specifiers of notional
words (the determiners of nouns, modal verbs, functional modifiers
and the intensifiers of adjectives and adverbs); 2) the interpositional
elements (prepositions and conjunctions); 3) the words, referring to
the sentence as a whole (question-words; inducement words:
let
,
let’s
,
please
, etc; attention-getting words; words of affirmation and negation;
sentence introducers
it
,
there
; and some others).
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Comparing the classification of word classes proposed by
Ch. C. Fries with the traditional system of parts of speech, one cannot
help noticing the similarity of the general principles of the two: the
opposition of notional and functional words, the four cardinal classes of
notional words and their open character, the interpretation of functional
words as syntactic mediators and their representation by the list.
When discussing the strong and weak points of the morphological
system of parts of speech, one should remember that traditional
principles of part-of-speech identification were formulated as a result
of profound research conducted on the vast material of numerous
languages. The recently advanced interpretation of the part-of-speech
system as a continuum, as a field structure having intermediary elements
and transition zones between polar entities, provides a new promising
approach to the intriguing problems of morphology.
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