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Critical thinking is a complex and debated concept with a range of conflicting
viewpoints in the field. The origins of critical thinking literature can be traced to two
academic disciplines: philosophy and psychology. Additionally, Stenberg has identified
a third dimension of critical thinking within the educational context. The philosophical
perspective centers around the hypothetical critical thinker, characterized by qualities
like curiosity, open-mindedness, adaptability, and the ability to understand diverse
viewpoints. In contrast, the cognitive psychological approach
focuses on the real
thought processes of individuals, comparing them with idealized cognitive processes.
It aims to define critical thinking by observing actions and behaviors displayed by
individuals with strong critical thinking skills, providing a comprehensive list of the
competencies and procedures they use. Bloom and colleagues contribute to the
educational approach by introducing a taxonomy of information processing skills.
Specifically, the top three levels of this taxonomy (analysis, synthesis, and evaluation)
are often seen as indicative of critical thinking abilities. The educational approach is
based on substantial classroom experience and observations of student learning.
However, it's important to note that the frameworks in this field have not been
rigorously tested within the realms of philosophy or psychology.
Numerous researchers who specialize in the field of critical thinking express
concerns regarding the insufficient state of critical thinking skills in both educated
adults and children. Early
research, influenced by the Piagetian tradition, tended to
view the cognitive processes of young children as less developed compared to those of
older individuals. According to Piaget's stages of cognitive development, young
children were thought to lack the capacity for formal operations, which are considered
essential for critical thinking. However, more recent research has shown that young
children engage in many of the same cognitive processes as adults, suggesting that
there is a role for nurturing critical thinking skills in lower elementary education.
Kennedy notes that although critical thinking abilities tend to improve with age, even
young children can benefit from instruction in critical thinking. Bailin and colleagues
argue that critical thinking instruction in primary school settings can include teachings
that promote students' appreciation for reason and truth, encourage open-mindedness,
foster respect for others during discussions, and cultivate a willingness to consider
alternative perspectives. A significant body of research in the field of critical thinking
supports the idea that critical thinking skills and competencies can be developed
through instruction. Halpern provides evidence of the effectiveness of two instructional
programs in this regard. Furthermore, Kennedy and others concluded that interventions
aimed at enhancing critical thinking skills generally produce positive outcomes. While
some authors propose that critical thinking skills and capabilities should be acquired
within the broader context of learning, without direct and explicit instruction, there is
an alternative approach.
In the second approach, thinking skills, including critical
thinking, are taught through focused and explicit instruction in a separate course,
independent of specific subject matter. This approach is notably common in the Italian
educational context. A third approach seeks to strike a balance between the general and
subject-specific methods. In their analysis of 117 empirical studies, Abrami and
colleagues found that this blended approach led to the most significant improvements
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in students' skills and dispositions. Furthermore, the
authors observed that when
educators receive specialized training in teaching critical thinking, it has the most
substantial impact on course curricula. Therefore, effective interventions may require
professional development opportunities specifically designed to equip teachers with
the skills and knowledge necessary for effective instruction in critical thinking.
Methods
In this article, the secondary research method was utilized to examine the
programs aimed at developing critical thinking skills in elementary school students.
Secondary data review, often referred to as a "literature review" or "secondary
research," is a commonly employed research method in academic work. It entails a
systematic evaluation and analysis of existing data and
information that have been
collected by other researchers or organizations for purposes unrelated to the
researcher's own project.
The use of secondary research, also known as a literature review or secondary
data analysis, can be justified for various reasons in different research contexts:A)
Comparative Studies: Researchers can employ secondary data to compare findings
from various sources, regions, or time periods, which can result in broader insights and
a more comprehensive understanding of a particular topic.B) Ethical Considerations:
In certain situations, collecting primary data may present ethical dilemmas or privacy
concerns. Secondary data analysis can circumvent these issues by utilizing existing
anonymized data C) Cost-Effectiveness: Conducting primary research, such as
surveys, experiments, or fieldwork, can be resource-intensive in terms of time, money,
and human resources. Secondary research enables researchers to make use of existing
data without incurring these additional costs. D) Time Efficiency:
Primary data
collection can be time-consuming, particularly when dealing with large sample sizes
or complex methodologies. Secondary research offers access to readily available data,
which can expedite the research process.
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