Лекции по теоретической грамматике английского языка для студентов
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лекция по грамматиае
- Бұл бет үшін навигация:
- Substitution
- Conjunction
| exophoric
reference ( deixis : Can you see that? ), or refers to an item within the text, hence endophoric reference. The two possible directions of endophoric reference are backward ( anaphoric r.; direct anaphora: I met a man. He was wearing ... , indirect anaphora: It is a solid house. The walls are thick ...) or forward ( cataphoric r.: ... the house whose walls are thick ); in the case of a reference to an item of which there is (in the given situation) only one instance, we talk about homophora (e.g. Place the books on the table please ). The relationship between two items in which both refer to the same person or thing and one stands as a linguistic antecedent of the other is called coreference (compare He saw himself in the mirror with He saw him in the mirror ). Reference (semantic level) EXOPHORA ENDOPHORA (situational) (textual) ANAPHORA CATAPHORA (referring to preceding text) (referring to following text) Examples: ANAPHORA: Three blind mice see how they run. CATAPHORA: I would never have believed it. They've accepted the proposal. 134 EXOPHORA: (a child making noise). Mother: Stop doing that here. I'm trying to work. Types of reference: a. PERSONAL – lexical items replaced with personal pronouns, possessive adjectives, possessive pronouns … b. DEMONSTRATIVE – realised by deictic terms: demonstrative adverbs (here, now …), nominal demonstratives (this, these …), definite article (the). c. COMPARATIVE – on the basis of identity (same), similarity (such), difference (other, else), numerative (more, less), epithets (better). Examples of types of reference: PERSONAL: John has moved to a new house. He had it built last year. DEMONSTRATIVE: I like the push-ups and the sit-ups. These are my favourites. COMPARATIVE: Mary was a lady in mid-20s. Such people can't change a flat tyre. Ellipsis , i.e., omission of something referred to earlier, is an instance of textual anaphora (e.g., Have some more ). Types of ellipsis: a. NOMINAL – a word functioning as deictic, numerative, epithet or classifier is upgraded from the status of modifier to the status of head. i. -Did you get a first prize? – No, I got a third. ii. His sons went into business. Neither succeeded. b. VERBAL – the structure does not fully express its systemic features. i. Have you been swimming? Yes, I have. (lexical ellipsis) ii. Has she been crying? No, laughing. (operator ellipsis) 135 c. CLAUSAL – clauses have a two-part structure: MODAL + PROPOSITIONAL ELEMENTS i. Who taught you to spell? Grandfather did. PRESUPPOSED CLAUSE | ELLIPTICAL FORM | SUBSTITUTION FORM | FULL FORM ii. Has the plane landed? | Yes, it has. | Yes it has done. | Yes, it has landed. Substitution is very similar to ellipsis in the effect it has on the text, and occurs when instead of leaving a word or phrase out, as in ellipsis, it is substituted for another, more general word. For example, "Which ice-cream would you like?" - "I would like the pink one" where "one" is used instead of repeating "ice-cream." Conjunction, creates cohesion by relating sentences and paragraphs to each other by using words from the class of conjunctions or numerals. Types of conjunction: a. ADDITIVE (includes alternative and negative)– and, nor, or (else), furthermore, thus, likewise … b. ADVERSATIVE – yet, but, however, actually, instead, at any rate … c. CAUSAL – so, hence, consequently, because, otherwise … d. TEMPORAL – then, finally, soon, up to now, in short, to sum up … Examples: He was climbing for the whole day… a. ADDITIVE: …and in all this time he met no one. b. ADVERSATIVE: …yet he was hardly aware of being tired. c. CAUSAL: …so by night time the valley was far bellow him d. TEMPORAL: …then as dusk fell, he sat down to rest. жүктеу/скачать 0,5 Mb. Достарыңызбен бөлісу:
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