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Direct Approach
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Reading Approach
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Audiolingual Approach
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Community Language Learning
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The Silent Way
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The Communicative Approach
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Functional Notional Approach
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Total Physical Response Approach
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The Natural Approach
Theoretical Orientations to L2 Methods & Approaches. There are four general orientations among modern
second-language methods and approaches:
1. STRUCTURAL/LINGUISTIC: Based on beliefs about the structure of language and descriptive or
contrastive linguistics. Involves isolation of grammatical and syntactic elements of L2 taught either
deductively or inductively in a predetermined sequence. Often involves much meta-linguistic content or
"learning about the language" in order to learn the language.
2. COGNITIVE: Based on theories of learning applied specifically to second language learning. Focus is
on the learning strategies that are compatible with the learners own style. L2 content is selected according to
concepts and techniques that facilitate generalizations about the language, memorization and "competence"
leading to "performance".
3. AFFECTIVE/INTERPERSONAL
:
Focuses on the psychological and affective pre-dispositions of the
learner that enhance or inhibit learning. Emphasizes interaction among and between teacher and students and
the atmosphere of the learning situation as well as students' motivation for learning. Based on concepts adapted
from counseling and social psychology.
4. FUNCTIONAL/COMMUNICATIVE: Based on theories of language acquisition, often referred to as
the "natural" approach, and on the use of language for communication. Encompasses multiple aspects of the
communicative act, with language structures selected according to their utility in achieving a communicative
purpose. Instruction is concerned with the input students receive, comprehension of the "message" of language
and student involvement at the students' level of competence.
The Grammar-Translation Approach.
This approach was historically used in teaching Greek and Latin.
The approach was generalized to teaching modern languages.
Classes are taught in the students' mother tongue, with little active use of the target language. Vocabulary
is taught in the form of isolated word lists. Elaborate explanations of grammar are always provided. Grammar
instruction provides the rules for putting words together; instruction often focuses on the form and inflection
of words. Reading of difficult texts is begun early in the course of study. Little attention is paid to the content
of texts, which are treated as exercises in grammatical analysis. Often the only drills are exercises in translating
disconnected sentences from the target language into the mother tongue, and vice versa. Little or no attention
is given to pronunciation.
The Direct Approach.
This approach was developed initially as a reaction to the grammar-translation
approach in an attempt to integrate more use of the target language in instruction.
Lessons begin with a dialogue using a modern conversational style in the target language. Material is first
presented orally with actions or pictures. The mother tongue is NEVER, NEVER used. There is no
translation. The preferred type of exercise is a series of questions in the target language based on the dialogue
or an anecdotal narrative. Questions are answered in the target language. Grammar is taught inductively–rules
are generalized from the practice and experience with the target language. Verbs are used first and
systematically conjugated only much later after some oral mastery of the target language. Advanced students
read literature for comprehension and pleasure. Literary texts are not analyzed grammatically. The culture
associated with the target language is also taught inductively. Culture is considered an important aspect of
learning the language.
The Reading Approach.
This approach is selected for practical and academic reasons. For specific uses of
the language in graduate or scientific studies. The approach is for people who do not travel abroad for whom
reading is the one usable skill in a foreign language.
The priority in studying the target language is first, reading ability and second, current and/or historical
knowledge of the country where the target language is spoken.Only the grammar necessary for reading
comprehension and fluency is taught. Minimal attention is paid to pronunciation or gaining conversational
skills in the target language. From the beginning, a great amount of reading is done in L2, both in and out of
class. The vocabulary of the early reading passages and texts is strictly controlled for difficulty. Vocabulary is
expanded as quickly as possible, since the acquisition of vocabulary is considered more important that
grammatical skill.Translation reappears in this approach as a respectable classroom procedure related to
comprehension of the written text.
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The Audiolingual Method.
This method is based on the principles of behavior psychology. It adapted many
of the principles and procedures of the Direct Method, in part as a reaction to the lack of speaking skills of
the Reading Approach.
New material is presented in the form of a dialogue. Based on the principle that language learning is habit
formation, the method fosters dependence on mimicry, memorization of set phrases and over-
learning. Structures are sequenced and taught one at a time. Structural patterns are taught using repetitive
drills. Little or no grammatical explanations are provided; grammar is taught inductively. Skills are sequenced:
Listening, speaking, reading and writing are developed in order.Vocabulary is strictly limited and learned in
context. Teaching points are determined by contrastive analysis between L1 and L2. There is abundant use of
language laboratories, tapes and visual aids. There is an extended pre-reading period at the beginning of the
course. Great importance is given to precise native-like pronunciation. Use of the mother tongue by the teacher
is permitted, but discouraged among and by the students. Successful responses are reinforced; great care is
taken to prevent learner errors. There is a tendency to focus on manipulation of the target language and to
disregard content and meaning.
Hints for Using Audio-lingual Drills in L2 Teaching.
1. The teacher must be careful to insure that all of the utterances which students will make are actually
within the practiced pattern. For example, the use of the AUX verb have should not suddenly switch to have
as a main verb.
2. Drills should be conducted as rapidly as possibly so as to insure automaticity and to establish a system.
3. Ignore all but gross errors of pronunciation when drilling for grammar practice.
4. Use of shortcuts to keep the pace o drills at a maximum. Use hand motions, signal cards, notes, etc. to
cue response. You are a choir director.
5. Use normal English stress, intonation, and juncture patterns conscientiously.
6. Drill material should always be meaningful. If the content words are not known, teach their meanings.
7. Intersperse short periods of drill (about 10 minutes) with very brief alternative activities to avoid fatigue
and boredom.
8. Introduce the drill in this way:
a. Focus (by writing on the board, for example)
b. Exemplify (by speaking model sentences)
c. Explain (if a simple grammatical explanation is needed)
d. Drill
9. Don’t stand in one place; move about the room standing next to as many different students as possible
to spot check their production. Thus you will know who to give more practice to during individual drilling.
10. Use the "backward buildup" technique for long and/or difficult patterns.
–tomorrow
–in the cafeteria tomorrow
–will be eating in the cafeteria tomorrow
–Those boys will be eating in the cafeteria tomorrow.
11. Arrange to present drills in the order of increasing complexity of student response. The question is:
How much internal organization or decision making must the student do in order to make a response in this
drill. Thus: imitation first, single-slot substitution next, then free response last.
Community Language Learning. Curran, C.A. (1976). Counseling-Learning in Second Languages. Apple
River, Illinois: Apple River Press, 1976.
This methodology created by Charles Curran is not based on the usual methods by which languages are
taught. Rather the approach is patterned upon counseling techniques and adapted to the peculiar anxiety and
threat as well as the personal and language problems a person encounters in the learning of foreign languages.
Consequently, the learner is not thought of as a student but as a client. The native instructors of the language
are not considered teachers but, rather are trained in counseling skills adapted to their roles as language
counselors.
The language-counseling relationship begins with the client's linguistic confusion and conflict. The aim of
the language counselor's skill is first to communicate an empathy for the client's threatened inadequate state
and to aid him linguistically. Then slowly the teacher-counselor strives to enable him to arrive at his own
increasingly independent language adequacy. This process is furthered by the language counselor's ability to
establish a warm, understanding, and accepting relationship, thus becoming an "other-language self" for the
client. The process involves five stages of adaptation:
STAGE1. The client is completely dependent on the language counselor.
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1. First, he expresses only to the counselor and in English what he wishes to say to the group. Each group
member overhears this English exchange but no other members of the group are involved in the interaction.
2. The counselor then reflects these ideas back to the client in the foreign language in a warm, accepting
tone, in simple language in phrases of five or six words.
3. The client turns to the group and presents his ideas in the foreign language. He has the counselor's aid if
he mispronounces or hesitates on a word or phrase. This is the client's maximum security stage.
STAGE2.
1. Same as above.
2. The client turns and begins to speak the foreign language directly to the group.
3. The counselor aids only as the client hesitates or turns for help. These small independent steps are signs
of positive confidence and hope.
STAGE 3
1. The client speaks directly to the group in the foreign language. This presumes that the group has now
acquired the ability to understand his simple phrases.
2. Same as 3 above. This presumes the client's greater confidence, independence, and proportionate insight
into the relationship of phrases, grammar, and ideas. Translation is given only when a group member desires
it.
STAGE 4
1. The client is now speaking freely and complexly in the foreign language. Presumes group's
understanding.
2. The counselor directly intervenes in grammatical error, mispronunciation, or where aid in complex
expression is needed. The client is sufficiently secure to take correction.
STAGE 5
1. Same as stage 4.
2. The counselor intervenes not only to offer correction but to add idioms and more elegant constructions.
3. At this stage the client can become counselor to the group in stages 1, 2, and 3.
The Silent Way. Gattegno, C. (1972).Teaching Foreign Languages in Schools: The Silent Way. New York
City: Educational Solutions.
Procedures. This method created by Caleb Gattegno begins by using a set of colored rods and verbal
commands in order to achieve the following: To avoid the use of the vernacular. To create simple linguistic
situations that remain under the complete control of the teacher To pass on to the learners the responsibility
for the utterances of the descriptions of the objects shown or the actions performed. To let the teacher
concentrate on what the students say and how they are saying it, drawing their attention to the differences in
pronunciation and the flow of words. To generate a serious game-like situation in which the rules are implicitly
agreed upon by giving meaning to the gestures of the teacher and his mime. To permit almost from the start a
switch from the lone voice of the teacher using the foreign language to a number of voices using it. This
introduces components of pitch, timbre and intensity that will constantly reduce the impact of one voice and
hence reduce imitation and encourage personal production of one's own brand of the sounds. To provide the
support of perception and action to the intellectual guess of what the noises mean, thus bring in the arsenal of
the usual criteria of experience already developed and automatic in one's use of the mother tongue. To provide
a duration of spontaneous speech upon which the teacher and the students can work to obtain a similarity of
melody to the one heard, thus providing melodic integrative schemata from the start.
Materials. The complete set of materials utilized as the language learning progresses include:
A set of colored wooden rods A set of wall charts containing words of a "functional" vocabulary and some
additional ones; a pointer for use with the charts in Visual Dictation A color coded phonic chart(s) Tapes or
discs, as required; films Drawings and pictures, and a set of accompanying worksheets Transparencies, three
texts, a Book of Stories, worksheets.
The Communicative Approach
What is communicative competence?
Communicative competence is the progressive acquisition of the ability to use a language to achieve
one's communicative purpose.
Communicative competence involves the negotiation of meaning between meaning between two or
more persons sharing the same symbolic system.
Communicative competence applies to both spoken and written language.
Communicative competence is context specific based on the situation, the role of the participants and
the appropriate choices of register and style. For example: The variation of language used by persons in
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different jobs or professions can be either formal or informal. The use of jargon or slang may or may not be
appropriate.
Communicative competence represents a shift in focus from the grammatical to the communicative
properties of the language; i.e. the functions of language and the process of discourse.
Communicative competence requires the mastery of the production and comprehension of
communicative acts or speech acts that are relevant to the needs of the L2 learner.
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