23. actual Division of the sentence
Actual division of the sentence, or functional sentence perspective,
refers to the communicative properties of sentences. According to this
theory the sentence is divided into two parts. Theme is the part of the
sentence which contains a starting point of the statement. Rheme is the
other part of the sentence containing the new information for the sake
of which the sentence has been uttered or written. The terms “theme”
and “rheme” are derived from Greek. The term “theme” means “what is
set or established”, the term “rheme” means “what is said or told”. This
pair of terms appeared to be best suited for the theory of actual division.
They came into use in the works of several Czech linguists, first of all
Jan Firbas, who wrote his thesis on the function of word-order in Old
English and Modern English (1959).
The relation between the syntactic structure of the sentence and
its actual division is a very important linguistic problem. The means
of expressing a thematic or a rhematic quality of a word or phrase in
a sentence depend on the grammatical structure of the given language.
In a language with a developed morphological structure and free
word-order, the latter (i. e. word-order) is effectively used to show
the difference between theme and rheme. The word order plays a very
important part in the communicative structure of Russian sentences.
Cf.:
Женщина села на скамейку — На скамейку села женщина
.
In each sentence the last word corresponds to a rheme. No such variation
would be possible in the corresponding English sentence:
The woman
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sat on the bench
. It would involve some additional changes in the
grammatical structure and wording.
In Modern English there are several specific ways of showing that
a word or phrase corresponds to the rheme.
1. The grammatical construction “…
It is
…
which
/
that
/
who
” is
used for the representation of the rheme enclosed between the two
components, e. g.
It is our disagreement that matters in the long run.
2. The subject or any other sentence member can be made a rheme
by means of intonation, cf.:
Mary was playing the piano at the
‘
moment.
‘Mary was playing the piano at the moment.
Mary was ‘playing the piano at the moment.
3. Another means of pointing out the rheme in the sentence is the
intensifying particle (
just
,
even
,
only
, etc), followed by the word in
question, e. g.
It is only a suggestion
.
4. The subject put at the end of the sentence becomes rhematic,
which is typical of the existential sentences, e. g.
And there came some
new information from the expert.
5. Another means of indicating the rheme of a sentence may be the
indefinite article, e. g.
There is a problem.
There are also some means of showing up the theme in the English
sentence:
1. This can be achieved by using the definite article, e. g.
The idea
was good
.
2. The loose parenthesis introduced by the phrase
As to / As for
produces the so-called double subject focusing on the theme, e. g.
As
for the others, they were not eager to interfere.
3.
Some scholars also believe that any notional constituent placed
at the beginning of the sentence is made its theme, e. g.:
All that Dr
Roberts found in the reference books
;
Next morning we are leaving for
Boston
.
Many problems concerning the actual division of the sentence have
not been solved yet. In particular, it is not certain that every sentence
necessarily consists of the two parts: theme and rheme. In some cases
70
there are supposed to be intermediate elements. Jan Firbas in his
analysis of English functional sentence perspective pointed out these
intermediate elements and described their function as a transition zone.
R. Quirk closely relates the organized communicative system
of the sentence to the English intonation patterns. He takes into
consideration three aspects of this system: theme, focus, and emotive
emphasis. According to this approach each tone unit represents the
unit of information and the place where the nucleus falls is the focus
of information (the rheme). The neutral position of the focus is called
end-focus. It is stated that if the nucleus falls on the last stressed
syllable of the clause (according to the principle of end-focus), the new
information could be the entire clause, or the predication of the clause,
or the last element of the clause. There are three factors contributing to
the presentation of the content of a clause in one particular order rather
than another. One is the tendency to place new information towards the
end of the clause — the principle of end-focus. Another is the tendency
to reserve the final position for the more complex part of a clause —
the principle of end-weight. A third factor is the limitation of possible
clause structures, with their sets of participant roles. These restrictions
determine, for example, that an agentive role cannot be expressed by
an object or complement, but only by the subject or by the agent of
a passive clause, e. g.:
Who makes these chairs? — They are made by
Morris.
Actual division is different in different communicative types of
sentences. The declarative sentence expresses a certain proposition,
that is a statement of the fact, and the actual division of a declarative
sentence presents itself in the most complete form. The rheme of the
declarative sentence is the centre of the statement, e. g.
Now you know
the truth
.
The imperative sentence does not express any statement of fact
that is any proposition proper. M. Y. Blokh says that the proposition
underlying the imperative sentence is reversely contrasted to the
content of the expressed inducement. Thus, command or request to
do something is based on the premise that something is not done. For
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example
: Give me his address,
please
(Premise — the address has not
been given yet). The rheme of the imperative sentence expresses the
informative nucleus of the inducement — a wanted (or unwanted)
action together with its attending elements.
The interrogative sentence expresses an inquiry about information
which the speaker does not possess. The rheme of the interrogative
sentence is informatively open or gaping. Its function is to mark the
rhematic position in the response sentence. Different types of questions
present different types of open rhemes. In special questions the nucleus
of the inquiry is expressed by a question-word. The gaping meaning is
to be replaced in the answer by the wanted actual information. Thus,
the rheme of the answer is the substitute of a question-word, the two
making up a rhematic unity in the broader question-answer construction,
e. g.:
Where did you meet him? — At a scientific conference
. The rheme
of general questions is also open. But its openness consists in two
suggestions presented for choice to the listener. It is clearly seen in the
structure of alternative questions, e. g.:
Will you invite him home or
visit him at the hotel?
The general question of the “
yes
—
no
” response
type is implicitly alternative. Its inquiry concerns the choice between
existence and non-existence of an indicated fact, e. g.:
Are you going to
leave for good? — Yes / No
.
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