participants in inter-university scientific and practical conferences

200 
given top priority. CLT also positions the teacher as a facilitator, 
rather than an instructor. Furthermore, the approach is a non-
methodical system that does not use a textbook series to teach the 
target language but works on developing sound oral and verbal skills 
prior to reading and writing. 
Societal influences 
Language teaching was originally considered a cognitive 
matter that mainly involved memorization. It was later thought 
instead to be socio-cognitive: language can be learned through the 
process of social interaction. Today, however, the dominant 
technique in teaching any language is communicative language 
teaching (CLT). It was Noam Chomsky's theories in the 1960s, 
focusing on competence and performance in language learning, that 
gave rise to communicative language teaching, but the conceptual 
basis for CLT was laid in the 1970s by the linguists Michael 
Halliday, who studied how language functions are expressed through 
grammar, and Dell Hymes, who introduced the idea of a wider 
communicative competence instead of Chomsky's narrower 
linguistic competence.[4] The rise of CLT in the 1970s and the early 
1980s was partly in response to the lack of success with traditional 
language teaching methods and partly by the increase in demand for 
language learning. In Europe, the advent of the European Common 
Market, an economic predecessor to the European Union, led to 
migration in Europe and an increased number of people who needed 
to learn a foreign language for work or personal reasons. Meanwhile, 
more children were given the opportunity to learn foreign languages 
in school, as the number of secondary schools offering languages 
rose worldwide as part of a general trend of curriculum-broadening 
and modernization, with foreign-language study no longer confined 
to the elite academies. In Britain, the introduction of comprehensive 
schools, which offered foreign-language study to all children, rather 
than to the select few of the elite grammar schools, greatly increased 
the demand for language learning.
The increased demand included many learners who struggled 
with traditional methods such as grammar translation, which 
involves the direct translation of sentence after sentence as a way to 
learn the language. Those methods assumed that students aimed to 
master the target language and were willing to study for years before 

201 
expecting to use the language in real life. However, those 
assumptions were challenged by adult learners, who were busy with 
work, and by schoolchildren who were less academically gifted and 
so could not devote years to learning before they could use the 
language. Educators realized that to motivate those students an 
approach with a more immediate reward was necessary,[5] and they 
began to use CLT, an approach that emphasizes communicative 
ability and yielded better results. Additionally, the trend of 
progressivism in education provided further pressure for educators to 
change their methods. Progressivism holds that active learning is 
more effective than passive learning.[5] As that idea gained traction, 
in schools there was a general shift towards using techniques where 
students were more actively involved, such as group work. Foreign-
language education was no exception to that trend, and teachers 
sought to find new methods, such as CLT, that could better embody 
the shift in thinking. 

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