UNIT 1
Read the text
COMPUTER SCIENCE
1. Computer science is a part of an applied mathematics. Specialists in
computer science say that this field of knowledge is very interesting
because it deals with computer-aided-design (CAD) and computer-aided-
manufacturing (CAM).
2. Computers are intended to improve the productivity of labor of
scientists, designers, engineers, managers, and other specialists, because
computers offer quick and optimal solutions. One of the main goals of
using CAD/CAM is to shorten the time between designing and
manufacturing.
3. Moreover, computers came in our life and to our houses and now we can
solve our everyday problems with their help.
4. Computers can be divided into simple and complex devices. Simple
computers such as calculators can perform addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division. As far as complex computers are concerned
they can do different logical operations and some of them even have
artificial intelligence.
5. Thus in order to elaborate up-to-date and inexpensive programs as well
as to defend them from viruses, it is important to know some programming
languages.
6. There are low- level programming languages such as a machine
language and an assembly language and an high-level programming
languages, for instance, FORTRAN, PASCAL, ADA, C, BASIC, etc
1. Translate these paragraph number 2,4 and 5 into English
2. Answer the questions from the text:
1. What do specialists in computer science deal with?
2. What are the computers used for?
3. What operations can simple devices perform?
4. What operations do complex computers perform?
5. What are CAD/CAM systems intended to do?
6. What high-level programming languages do you know?
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1. Experts in computer science deal
with__
3. Finish these sentences:
a) manufacturing cars;
b)computer-aided-design;
c) increasing the productivities of car.
2. One o f the aims of using
computers is ....
3. Simple devices can do....
4. Complex computers perform....
a) to work out up-to-date demands;
b) to shorten the time between
designing and
manufacturing;
c) To construct hardware.
a) logical operations;
b) such operations as
addition, subtraction,
Multiplication and division.
5. High-level programming languages a) BASIC, FORTRAN;
are ....
d) Assembly and machine languages.
UNIT 2
Read the text
1. Computer can perform many functions: they can do mathematical and
logical operations, mathematical operations including arithmetic and
algebraic operations, such as addition, multiplication and division, rising to
a power, differentiating and integrating. Logical operations include
comparing, selecting, sorting and matching.
2. Computers are divided into four main classes: microcomputers,
minicomputers, mainframes and supercomputers.
3. A minicomputer is a computer manufactured on a single printed board
which contains one or more chips. Most microcomputers are personal
computers. At present personal computers have become so powerful that
they are used as CAD/CAM systems.
4. A microprocessor is very small device used in microcomputers, which
deals with memories by reading and writing process. Microprocessor can
obtain from memory and execute a limited set of instructions in order to
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perform addition or subtraction on a binary word and to input or output
binary data.
5. Memory is a device for storing digital information. Memory should be
small in size and large in capacity. It should take little power and work at
the same speed as computer logic. There are many types of memories. All
microcomputers use Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read Only
Memory (ROM).
6. RAM is called so because information can be put into or out of any
single byte of memory. ROM is permanent memory for program storage.
7. People know many types of units, hard disks and floppy disks being
widely used. Floppy disks (flexible plastic disks) are used in personal
computers.
1. Translate these paragraph number 1,3,4 and 6 into English
a) a computer which can perform
addition or subtraction on a binary
word;
b) a computer manufactured on a
single printed board which contains
one or more chips;
c) a very small device that can
obtain from memory and execute a
limited set of
instructions.
a) a device which can perform
logical operations;
b) a computer manufactured on a
single printed board which contains
one or more chips;
c) a device which can obtain from
memory a limited set of instructions
in order
to perform addition or
subtraction.
a) memory for a limited set of
instructions;
b) permanent memory for program
storage;
2. Finish these sentences:
1. A microcomputer is ... .
2. A microprocessors is
3. RAM is....
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с) Memory when information can
be put into or out of any single byte
of memory.
4. ROM is.. ..
a) memory for a limited set of
instructions;
b) permanent memory for program
storage;
c) Random access memory.
UN IT3
Read the text
PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES
1. Computers can deal with different kinds of problems but they must be
given the right instructions. Instructions are written in one of the high-level
languages, for example, FORTRAN, COBOL, ALGOL, PASCAL,
BASIC, or C. But a program written in one of these languages should be
interpreted into machine code. Usually when one instruction written in a
high-level language is transformed into machine code, it results in several
instructions. Brief descriptions of some high-level languages are given
below.
2. FORTRAN is acronym for Formula Translation. This language is used
for solving scientific and mathematical problems. It consists of algebraic
formula and English phrases.
3. COBOL is acronym for COmmon Business-Oriented Languages. This
language is used for commercial purposes. COBOL deals with the
problems that do not involve a lot of mathematical calculations.
4. ALGOL is acronym for Algorithmic Language. It is used for
mathematical and scientific purposes.
5. Basic is acronym for Beginner’s All-purpose Symbolic Instruction
Code. It is used by students who require a simple language to begin
programming.
6. С is developed to support the UNIX operating system. С is a genera-
purpose language.
7. When a program is designed to do a specific type of work it is called an
application program.
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1. Translate these paragraph number 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 and 6 into English
2. Finish these sentences:
1. FORTRAN is a high-level a)
supporting
UNIX
operating
language which is used for....
system;
b) commercial purposes;
c)
Solving
scientific
and
mathematical problems.
2. ALGOL is a high-level language a) be used for commercial purposes;
which is intended to....
b) solve mathematical and scientific
problems;
c) Be used by students who require a
simple
language
to
begin
programming.
3. COBOL is a high-level language a)
to
solve
scientific
and
which is designed....
mathematical problems;
b) to
be used for commercial
purposes;
c) To support the UNIX operating
system.
4. BASIC is a high-level language a) for solving scientific problems;
which is used....
b) for commercial purposes;
c) By students who require a simple
language to begin programming.
5. С is a high-level language which a) to support the UNIX operating
is developed....
system;
b) to
deal with mathematical
problems;
c) For commercial purposes.
UNIT 4
How the First Computer Was Developed.
The first suggestion that a machine for mathematical computation
could be built was made more than a hundred years ago by the
mathematician Charles Babbage. We now realize that he
u n d e r s t o o d
clearly all the fundamental principles of modem computers.
Babbage was born in Devonshire, England, 1792. He did not receive a
good education, but he taught himself mathematics so well that when he
went to Cambridge, he found that he knew more algebra than his tutor.
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At that time mathematics in Cambridge was still under the influence of
Newton and was quite unaffected by the contemporary developments on
the continent.
Charles Babbage was outstanding among his contemporaries because
he insisted on the practical application of science and mathematics. For
example, he wrote widely on the economic advantages of mass production
and on the development of machine tools.
In 1812 he was sitting in his room looking at a table of logarithms
which he knees to be full of mistakes, when an idea occurred to computing
all tabular functions by machinery. Babbage constructed a small working
model which he demonstrated in 1822.
The Royal Society supported the project and Babbage was promised a
subsidy.
In 1833 he began to think of building a machine which was in fact the
first universal digital computer, as the expression is understood today.
Babbage devoted the rest of his life to an attempt to develop it. He had
to finance all of the work himself and he was only able to finish part of the
machine though he prepared thousands of detailed drawings from which it
could be made.
Babbage wrote more than 80 books and papers, but he was
misunderstood by his contemporaries and died a disappointed man in 1871.
He tried to solve by himself and with his own resources a series of
problems which in the end required the united efforts of two generations of
engineers.
After his death his son continued his work and built part of an
arithmetic unit, which printed out its results directly on paper.
UNIT 5
Economics and Economy
Every group of people must solve three basic problems of daily living:
What goods and services to produce, how to produce these goods and
Services, an d /o r whom to produce these goods and services.
Economics is the study of how society decides what, how, and for whom
to produce.
By goods we mean physical commodities such as steel, cars, and
strawberries.
By services we mean activities such as massages or live theatre
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performances
which can be consumed or enjoyed only at the instant they are produced. In
exceptional circumstances, society may find that some of the questions
about
what, how, and for whom to produce have already been answered; until the
arrival of Man Friday, Robinson Crouse need not worry about the “for
whom” question. In general, however, society must answer all three
questions.
By emphasizing the role of society, the definition places economics
within the social sciences, the sciences that study and explain human
behavior. The subject matter of economics is that part of human behavior
which relates to the production, exchange, and use of goods and services.
The central economic problem for society is how to reconcile the conflict
between people’s virtually limitless desires for goods and services, and the
scarcity of resources (labor, machinery, and raw materials) with which
these goods and services can be produced. In answering the questions
what, how, and for whom to produce, economics explains how scarce
resources are allocated between competing claims on their use.
Economics is about human behavior. Economists analyze problems, not
the subject matter of economics. Economists aim to develop theories of
human behavior and to test them against the facts.
Exercises:
Inset the missing words.
1. By emphasizing the role of society, the definition plac e s....... within
the social sciences that study and explain human behavior.
2. The central ......... problems for society is how to reconcile the
conflict between people’s virtually limitless desires for goods and
services.
^..............analyze problems, not the subject matter o f ..............
4. The main feature of the nation’s ........... is the consolidation of
capital at an unprecedented level, with profits going up, wages going
down and inflation accelerating.
5. The administration of our academy should be ............. With the
money we earn.
6. You should...........on cash balances.
7. We have to liv e ...........
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8............... aim to develop theories of human behavior and to test them
against the facts.
I.
Put the prepositions: within, of, to, in, for.
1. Every g ro u p ........... people must solve three basic problems of daily
living.
2. By emphasizing the role of society, the definition places economics
........... the social sciences.
3. The subject matter of economics is that part of human behavior
which relates............ the production, exchange and use of goods and
services.
4 ................ exceptional circumstances society may find that some of
the questions about what, how and for whom to produce have already
been answered.
5. The central economic problem s............ Society is how to reconcile
the conflict between people’s virtually limitless desires for goods and
services.
П.
Make up seven English sentences.
Economy, economic, economical, economically, economist, to
economize,
economics.
Ш. Retell the text.
IV. Translate the sentence into Russians.
1. Considerable part of business circles insists on discrimination rules
in trade being abolished.
2. They promised not to undertake any actions without consulting their
partners.
3. We have been trading with the firm for a very long time.
4. After learning that the company has sold his invention without
speaking to him, the scientist was shocked.
5. Having arrived two days before the opening of the conference I had
enough time to go sight-seeing.
6. Having got the necessary information the delegation left the bank.
7. They spent last Friday listening to the Minister telling the trade union
leaders that it is right for workers to hold back on wage claims.
I l l
8. The main feature of the nation’s economy is the consolidation of
capital at an unprecedented level, with profits going up, wages going
down and inflation accelerating.
9. The article published in the yesterday’s issue of “Financial Times”
pays particular attention to the measures aimed at further increasing
the interest rates.
UNIT 6
Read the text
The Open Market
In addition to being a means of exchange, money is also means of
measuring the value of men’s Labor, in economic theory, is any work
undertaken in return for a fixed payment. A mother may work very hard in
caring for her children, but she receive no fixed wages for this work. It is
not therefore labor in the strict economic sense. Economists are interested
in measuring the services which people render to each other. Although
aware of the services which people provide for nothing, they are not
concerned with such services. In economics, money is the standard by
which the value of things is judged. This is an objective, scientific standard
and not in any way related to standards of a religious, ethical or subjective
nature.
Human labor producers both goods and services. The activities of a farm
worker and a nurse are very different, but each is measurable in terms of
payment received. If however a farmer is self-employed and does not
receive a fixed wage from anyone else, he is in a different category from
the nurse and from his own farm workers. His activities are not wholly
labor. His workers receive their wages, but he receives whatever surplus
(large or small) emerges from his farming. This surplus, like any surplus in
industry or commerce, is what we usually call profit.
Employers obtain their net profits only after they have paid all expenses
arising out of their business activities: interest, rentals, payments for
machinery, wages and overheads generally. The surplus is not usually
available for employs and their families. Normally part of it goes to those
who have provided the initial capital needed to start a business. There is
always an element of risk in providing capital for new businesses. Such
businesses may fail. Both those who provide die capital and those who run
the businesses agree to bear the risk, but employs of such businesses are
not expected to bear any risk. If the business is
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Successful, the risk-taking has been justified, and invested capital earns
part of the profits as a return on the investment and period during which
the capital was at risk.
Capital in this instance is simply the accumulation of previous suipluses on
previous business activities. In this way the past is used to finance the
future. The accumulation of capital is almost always deliberate, either on
the part of Individual citizens or on the part of the state. Even in non-
capitalistic societies a certain part of the surplus achieved in any enterprise
is ploughed back into the system in order to promote further growth.
When capital, labor and enterprise combine to make a new business
successful, the business must still continue to compete on the market with
other companies producing the same type of commodity. The term market,
used by economists, is a logical extension from the idea of place set aside
for buying and selling. Formerly, part of a town was kept as a marketplace,
and country people would come in on market-days to buy and sell. Market
today need not however be located in any fixed place: the sugar market and
the cotton market are not geographical locations, but simply sets of
conditions which permit buyers and sellers to work together.
In a free market, competition takes place among sellers in order to sell
their commodities at the best possible price and among buyers in order to
obtain what they want at a price which suits them. Such competition
influence prices. Changers in supply and demand have their effects, and it
is not surprising that considerable fluctuations in price can take place over
periods of weeks and months.
Since these modem markets are not normally located in any special
place, buyers and sellers do not always have to meet face-to-face. They
may communicate by letter, by cable, by telephone or through their agents.
In a perfect market, such communications are easy, buyers and sellers are
numerous, and competition is completely free. In a perfect market there
can be only one price for any given commodity: the lowest price which
sellers will accept. There are, however, no really perfect markets, because
each market is subjected to its own peculiar conditions. It can be said,
however, that the price ruling in a market indicates the point where supply
and demand meet.
Monopoly is one of the peculiar which can affect the sale and purchase
of certain commodities. In some markets, there may be only one seller or a
cartel of seller working very closely together to control prices. The result
of such monopolistic activity is to fix prices at a level suitable to the seller,
a level which may bring him artificially high profits. Many governments
dislike this procedure and have taken legal action to restrict or halt any
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business activities directed towards cornering the market. In the U.S anti
trust laws operate to limit cartels and mergers, while in Britain the
Monopolies Commission examines all special arrangements and mergers
referred to them by the Board of Trade which appear to operate against
the public interest.
This type of monopoly is not the only possibility, however. There are
three other forms: state, legal and natural. State monopolies are quite
common nowadays, where the authorities in a particular country control
industries like steel and transport or important and prestigious services like
national airlines. Legal monopolies are different, because the law permits
certain individuals to benefit from their special inventions, discoveries or
processes. No person may infringe their rights in respect to such
monopolies. Finally, natural monopoly arises where a nation or individual
possesses most of a particular mineral for reasons of geography and
geology. Canadian nickel and South African gold are two
well-known
examples of this kind of monopoly.
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